Synposis of Plutarch’s Life an Example by

Synposis of Plutarch’s Life Mestrius Plutarchus, better known as Plutarch, lived his life in a Greek town called Chaeronea. He was a priest at the temple of Apollo at Delphi which was about 20 miles away from his abode. He was popular in the Roman empire because of his writings and lectures. He preferred to participate in the local affairs of his community rather than bask in his glory. Need essay sample on "Synposis of Plutarchs Life" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed One of his great works is called the Moralia which contain 78 essays and dialogues that are based on concerns he took seriously. His essays and lectures attracted Romans to his ideas because it was a relief from the problems they faced after the tragedies that Nero and Domitian brought about. Plutarch planned to write Parallel Lives, which are essays on the lives of Roman heroes and their counterparts in Greece. However, his most popular work that people appreciated even up to centuries after was Lives, a collection of his essays on Roman heroes and how they lived. It is written in Attic Greek which accounts for its unpopularity right now in our generation. Demetrius Poliorcetes, considered one of the best engineers of his time, was the son of Antigonus I Monophthalmus, a Didochi of Alexander the Great and also known as founder of the Antigonid dynasty. He sailed to Rhodes, upon his fathers orders, and captured the city in 307 BC using many siege contraptions that he and his men built. Some of the contraptions or siege engines he used were the Elepolis, a huge tower built by Epimachus of Athens, catapults that throw 80 kilogram rocks up to 150 meters away, the Tortoise, a very tall wooden structure with wheels and a battering ram, and drills that were about 25 meters long that can bore through the enemys walls. He also constructed the Stoa of Cleisthenes or Stoa of Demetrius:Sicyon in around 300 BC for his friend, Lamia and a fortified garrison for the Macedonian Guard atop the Hill of Muses in 294 BC. Paraphrase of at least 15 paragraphs about Demetrius (Source: Lendering) Antigonus and Demetrius lost in the Battle of Ipsus. Asia, Turkey, Syria, Phoenicia and Palestine divided as spoils of war because of Antigonus and Demetrius defeat. The three leaders who won felt unsafe because Demetrius was able to escape form Ipsus. He still led a large navy. Because of this, Cassander, Lysimachus and Ptolemy made a treaty by marrying their children. Ptolemy also needed his allies because he was wary of Seleucus, the new king of Asia. Seleucus knew that Ptolemy was preparing for war so he married his daughter to Demetrius. Their tandem was successful to the point that Ptolemy accepted a treaty. The Greeks betrayed their alliance to Demetrius by making a peace treaty with Cassander which gave Demetrius reason to attack them. He seized Athens and denied it its freedom and autonomy. He also retook Peloponnesse in 294. Demetrius wanted Macedonia. When Cassander died, his two brothers, Antipater and Alexander divided the territory. To secure his property, Alexander got the support of Demetrius and Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus invaded Macedonia for the two brothers and won. When Demetrius entered Macedonia, Alexander tried to kill him but Demetrius turned the tables on him. Demetrius was the new king and Antipater fled to Lysimachus. Demetrius had to give up Asia because of his desire for Greece and his enemies immediately seized the territories. Demetrius was content in conquering Greece except for Sparta and Aetolia. When he tried to invade Aetolia, Pyrrhus sided with the Aetolians and tried to invade Macedonia to no avail. They simply signed a peace treaty after. Demetrius had the smallest kingdom but his army was the largest and strongest. The three other kings attacked against him. The Macedonians also revolted. He installed his son, Antigonus Gonatas, as governor before attacking the east. He hoped to win Turkey and defeat Seleucus t o increase his troops. He won against Ptolemy but his soldiers deserted him which forced his surrender. Seleucus captured him and treated him kindly but he decided to drink himself to death. Three Quotations and Reflections Plutarch remarked, Such an unsociable, solitary thing is power, and so much of jealousy and distrust in it. This has been true in his time just as this truth still has its grip on the present. When one is powerful, one has to choose his friends wisely. One is lucky if he already had his friends beside him before he became powerful. Even then, it is easy to lose these friends once jealousy sets in. For those who gained power before attracting new friends, the questions that would abound will always concern the loyalty and true motives of the new friends. Power can set people apart from society and alienate them whether they like it or not. When Demetrius asked the famous philosopher, Stilpo, if any of his property had been stolen during his siege of Megara. No, replied Stilpo, I have not met with anyone to take away knowledge. I believe that one of the most valuable thing someone can be given is education. Knowledge can be a very strong foundation for success if it is put into good use. I also believe that a successful man will always meet failure in his lifetime. However, his good use of knowledge can always turn these failures into new successes. Antigonus advised Demetrius to marry Phila (a much older woman) for her status in society and wealth by saying, A man must wed where profit will be got. Horrible as it may seem, this type of decision-making can still happen nowadays. However, I believe that the only reason people should wed is their commitment to love each other eternally. Wealth can easily be managed and collected by two married people, if they make wise decisions and work together well as a team. Making wealth the primary reason for marriage makes it insulting, especially to women like Phila. However, in those days, men were considered far more superior than women. These days, though, women like Phila would have had a better chance to keep their wealth from gold diggers. References Demetrius Poliorcetes. (2001). Technology Museum of Thessaloniki. Lendering, J. (n.d.). Alexander's successors: the adventures of Demetrius. Plutarch-Priest of the Delphic Oracle. (2000). Wilmot H. McCutchen.

The superstring theory essays

The superstring theory essays The Superstring Theory; A Future of Understanding? Considering all of the scientific and technological advances that have occurred in the last century, one must conclude that the century to come is bound to make our heads spin. Time warps, hyperspace, parallel universes, and wormholes will no longer be science fiction. Our top physicists are closer than ever to bringing all of the forces of the universe into one master framework. An alias for the superstring theory is the theory of everything. The superstring theory brings together the four forces of the universe and leaves nothing unaccounted for. The advances in physics lead us to many intriguing ideas and possibilities. According to top physicists we will, one day, reach the level of technology needed to twist time and space into a pretzel creating wormholes linking distant parts of our universe. We could manipulate time and space and even create any imaginable matter. Michio Kaku could be more effective in his work Hyperspace [A]ny civilization that masters the hyperspace theory (the theory that postulates that higher dimensions are the decisive step in creating a comprehensive theory that unites the laws of nature) will become Lord of the universe(p. 33). Becoming Lord of the universe may be beneficial to us; it may lead to a whole new understanding of life. However, it may also jeopardize the natural world. Our ethics and life values will be at risk if this new universe of understanding is conquered. Although advances in technology are a vital part to our development as a civilization, the line where technology meets our ethics must not be crossed. It is very easy to become wrapped up in a world of machines because our lives become so much easier. It would be so easy to let machines do everything for us to improve our quality of life, but where do we stop cutting corners and do things ourselves? For...

Four decision issues managers faced when filling up their performance Essay

Four decision issues managers faced when filling up their performance review forms - Essay Example In order to minimize this problem, managers should be required to give their specific reason for the grades and evaluation. Through this, managers will be able to see that performance reviews should generally give an accurate overall performance of the employee. This will also enable them to see that their interaction with the employee is far outweighed by the way these customers deliver value for the organization. One of the most prevalent dilemmas in performance reviews are the managers perception of that this is a one-time annual reporting of how the employees fare. This hinders the management to give an accurate assessment of the employee under consideration as the manager may only note how the worker performs for the past month of two. In order to avoid this, managers should "invest time to give a day-to-day scorecard on individual qualitative and quantitative performance feedback impressions to employees on a day to day basis" (Heskett, 2006). Managers will be required to maintain a record of how their subordinates perform daily. This will be tallied every month in order to make it easier for employs to give a generalized assessment at the end of the year. Managers don't often recognize that the

Discussion 1 Week 10 Comparing Transshipment Models to Inventory Assignment

Discussion 1 Week 10 Comparing Transshipment Models to Inventory Applications - Assignment Example imply means that there is an objective of minimizing costs by ensuring that the most effective level of inventory is deemed to be maintained to maximize revenues and returns. The transportation model, defined as a special type of linear programming method which aims to allocate items or products from a source (or sources) to identified destinations (Taylor, 2010). The objective is to minimize costs of transporting these products. From the explanation of Taylor (2010), the transportation model could be considered an example of decision making under certainty. Decision-making satisfy the certainty condition when the evaluators or decision makers have the essential information to make a responsible decision. As emphasized, â€Å"people are reasonably sure about what will happen when they make a decision. The information is available and is considered to be reliable, and the cause and effect relationships are known† (Decision making under certainty, uncertainty and risk, 2007, par. 2). Transportation models contain all the required information to enable decision makers to identify the actual cost of transporting goods from the source/s to the specific destinations. As such, the formulation of the transportation problem includes identification of the objective function, which is usually to minimize transportation cost. Likewise, all decision variables and constraints are also appropriately identified and explicitly certain, in the formulation process to enable the decision makers to recommend the most viable solution. Benge, V. (2014). Can We Apply the Transshipment Models to Inventory Applications? Retrieved from Chron Small Business:

Communication Research Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Communication Research - Assignment Example 2). Qualitative research on the other hand entails a process of inquiry which enables the researcher to understand the social or human issue confronting the society and enables the analysis of this complex phenomenon through a holistic perspective and reporting of detailed views of those involved i.e. the informants/ participants in the study in a natural setting (Cresswell, 2002: 2). For the purpose of this study a qualitative research design is proposed since it offers a wider platform for the researcher to understand and explore the topic of study by methods which help in gathering information that help in understanding one’s qualitative understanding (Guba and Lincoln, 1998). Qualitative research entails several methods of inquiry for analysis such as biography, phenomenological study, grounded theory, ethnography as well as case study. All these types of method afford the researcher in thoroughly exploring the topic of the study and understand the meaning and intentions o f the participants. For the purpose of this study the case study methodology is proposed whereby some key blogs will be selected and its impact on the traditional mainstream media will be observed and analysed. This method is chosen to avoid a mere theoretical interpretation of the phenomenon and engage in a practical discussion thorugh application of case studies that help in supporting the analysis. The blogs will be carefully chosen based on various parameters number of readers, number of views, types of topics dealt with etc among others. References: Creswell, J. W. (2002). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative approaches to research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Pearson Education. Guba, E. G. & Lincoln, Y. S. (1998). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In Norman K. Denzin & Yvonna S. Lincoln (Eds.), The landscape of qualitative resea

Language and Music

Language and Music â€Å"Understanding music requires no recuperation[SKS1] of a fictional world, and no response to imaginary objects†¦.the meaning of music lies within it; it can be recovered only through an act of musical understanding, and not by an â€Å"assignment of values† of the kind provided by a semantic theory[SKS2]† (Roger Scruton) Music is an important aspect of everyday life: We can take it with us wherever we go and use it to set the scene or create a â€Å"soundtrack† to our lives. It has the power to influence our moods and emotions and can stir up feelings and old memories within the first few notes. Music is intertwined in all cultures and has been for as long as humans have had the ability to make it. It has been said that musical instruments and the production of music (in any form) predates the earliest evidence of writing. Music is everywhere. In order to understand music it is important to define what it is that makes something music. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the definition of music is; â€Å"The art or science of combining vocal or instrumental sounds to produce beauty of form, harmony, melody, rhythm, expressive content, etc.; musical composition, performance, analysis, etc., as a subject of study; the occupation or profession of musicians.† (Oxford University Press 2014) According to this definition, the basis of music is sound. Sound is defined as a sensation caused by a vibration of air particles. It cannot be seen by the naked eye and, at some frequencies, cannot be heard by the human ear. Music does not exist without sound as it is a product of various combinations of â€Å"vocal or instrumental sounds†. Everything that is considered â€Å"musical† is made from sound but not every sound is musical. Sounds exist whether we are listening to them or not. Many sounds are unintentional in that they are a necessary result of an action. They are not being created purposefully and are often just in the background of everyday life. Although we hear them, we do not have to listen or focus on them if we choose not to. Music, on the other hand, is an intentional object. It is purposefully created to be heard, we must focus on music and actively listen to it. Music is acousmatic. When we hear it we tend to detach the sound from its production an d focus on the sounds. This differs to the non-musical sounds we encounter everywhere. Music is a temporal occurrence but can only be discussed in spatial terms. Although there are specific terminologies related to music, there is no need to be an expert in order to enjoy a piece or discuss it with others. In order to properly consider the meaning of music and define it, we apply semantic terminology and compare music to language. It is easy for us to break both language and music down into their smallest forms and compare the similarities between both although we may have an issue with the starting point of music as we would have to determine the smallest form, which could be a sound, a note or even a beat, depending on how a person views the creation of music and their knowledge of how music is formed. If we were to break language down to its smallest form and work our way up, so to speak, we could say that the smallest part of language is a phoneme. From there we can conclude that a phoneme then becomes a morpheme, a morpheme then becomes a phrase, which then becomes a clause, which then becomes a sentence, and so on and so forth. As a native speaker, we are able to create numerous combinations of words that can be understood by others who share our language. In order for things to be understood, it is said that there needs to be some form of common knowledge or common ground. It is also important that there is some context to what is being expressed so we can deduce meaning from what we are hearing/reading. If we break down music into its simplest form, we begin with sounds that are combined to make different pitches. These become phrases and sequences that are combined to create whole pieces of music. If we compare language and music on this level, we can see that the two share similarities in structure. When discussing the meaning of music itself, there are a few things to consider. Firstly, we must distinguish what we mean by music and the form it is in. If we are talking about written music, one must have at least a basic knowledge of musical notation in order to understand what they are reading. Music is the universal language.† Aphoristic as this phrase may be, it does relate something many people think about music: music is expressive. But if music is expressive, what, exactly, does music express? For that matter, how does music express? Is the content or manner of expression of music the same as the content or manner of expression of language? In answering questions such as these, we promote previously empty cultural aphorisms about music like the one presented earlier to the status of meaningful claims. David Lewis highlights two important features of language – language as an object and language as a practice. I will present a view of the nature of music held by Peter Kivy, comparing it to Lewis’ conception of language. I will then argue that by Kivy’s view of music, music is not a language, though it has more language-like properties than Kivy admits. To briefly take stock, we might highlight four general properties of language we should look for in the determination of whether or not something is a language: Syntax – Lewis’ grammar operations. Determine legitimate strings. Semantics – Lewis’ meaning. The meaning of a well-formed string is the situation it describes in a set of possible worlds. Truth Values – Derived from comparing the meaning of a sentence with our world. Conventional Activity – a population arbitrarily determines a language used by conventionally using the language to express truth. Peter Kivy endorses a formalist view of music. The formalist doctrine is that music is a type of sound structure. Generally, we think of a structure as something we can appreciate visually; the word usually evokes mental images of certain spatial relations of objects to other objects. But according to the formalist, sound structures are â€Å"temporal patterns of sound† (emphasis added). To put this in a vocabulary familiar to musicians, sound structures are just combination of types of sounds (such as pitches, percussion, etc.) that occur in some timeframe. Music has formal properties and sensuous properties: a piece of music’s formal properties differentiate it from other pieces of music; i.e. certain notes are played in a certain order, the piece is a certain speed, and there are certain rhythms. And music’s ‘sensuous properties’ boil down to the fact that – shocker – music is a heard medium: we hear and notice different aspects of s ound events when we experience music. Kivy’s view of music directly supports the inclusion of one of the important features of language in music’s nature. He says that music has a â€Å"special kind of order: the order of syntactical structure.† He says that this order is governed by rules (of a sort); these rules concern how different sounds should be combined in the production of a musical work. For example, it is a staple of the syntax of certain schools in western music that there should be a return to the tonic at the end of a musical phrase. This syntax differs for different genres of music, much like it does for different languages. Certain chords can be used in certain genres, and not in others – for example, you will see flat V chords used in chord progressions in jazz, but not most pre-modern forms of classical music. But I think we have reason to believe that the nature of musical syntax is very similar to the nature of linguistic syntax. First of all, I question the assertion that the rules of linguistic syntax are stricter than the rules of musical syntax. For example, take the English grammar rule that the first letter of the first word in a written sentence is capitalized. I think this easily qualifies as a syntactic rule of written English; however, prominent writers have violated it throughout history (E. E. Cummings is one obvious example), and people today often violate it when talking to one another through electronic media such as texting on the phone and messaging online. I think we still want to say that these people are using English – they are just temporarily disregarding a grammar rule of English, which is more of a regularity than a law. However, though some rules of linguistic syntax are not absolutely strict, I do think that there are rules which are inviolable. Lewisâ⠂¬â„¢ rule that there is a finite set of elementary constituents paired with meanings that we can use in the construction of sentences is of paramount importance when using a language. I can’t type out a random assortment of characters and expect that configuration to be an English sentence. Similarly, certain combinatorial grammar rules are absolute. And it seems to me that musical syntax has very similar characteristics to this conception of the characteristics of linguistic syntax. There are certain rules which can be bent; a piece of music can preserve its status as a piece of music in a certain genre regardless of whether it follows a specific syntactic ‘regularity’ of this kind. This is similar to syntactic rules like capitalization mentioned in the previous paragraph. Then there are certain rules which must be followed for a piece to be classified as a member of a certain genre – relate this to how a string must follow a certain instantiation of the grammar rules Lewis established to be characterized as a member of one language rather than another. Then there are certain rules any genre of music must follow to be music rather than mere noise. This is similar to syntactic rules any language must have; a language must follow the general rules Lewis gives us, in one form or another. We can also see that the activity of music is analogous to the activity of ‘language’ that Lewis describes. Music is not just an entity, but also a social activity concerning musicians and listeners, wherein musicians make certain noises and they expect their listeners to respond a certain way. And I see no reason why we wouldn’t say that this activity is in some way arbitrary, however limited that arbitrariness is by the hard-wiring of our brains to enjoy certain sounds. The parallels between music as ‘language’ do not stop there. Music shares the ability to infer something about the state of mind of a composer or musician with language (substituting ‘speaker’ for ‘composer or musician’). Playing a guitar solo in a minor pentatonic scale allows us to infer one (admittedly broad) set of things about the mind of the guitarist, while playing in the blues scale allows us to infer something else. And we often make the same inferences as many other listeners. These inferences might also be wrong – as they might be in the case of ‘language’. And Kivy’s view that these inferences are not ‘in the music’ doesn’t stop us from saying that we make these inferences; we can say that we respond ‘by convention’ to a certain sound structure in a certain way without saying that there is anything about the sound structure that makes us respond this way. So far, so good, for the view that music is a language. Nothing that I have said thus far about Kivy’s view of music has conflicted with the definition of language Lewis gave us. And although I haven’t gone into the nuts and bolts of correlating Lewis’ grammar rules with musical syntax, it’s not hard to see how a story could be told relating them – in every way but one: what could we say corresponds with the meanings described in rule one and two? Kivy qualifies his formalist definition of music: â€Å"absolute music is a sound structure without semantic or representational content†. This is a big problem for a proponent of the view that music is a language. One of the essential characteristics of language is its status as something which can communicate meaning; some might call this property the most important property of language. And on initial reflection, Kivy’s claim seems to hold a lot of weight. How could music talk about situations in the external world? A song might represent ‘victory’ or ‘striving’ or what-have-you in some obscure, abstract sort of way; but it certainly does not have the power to describe in the incredibly detailed, content-rich way a language can. Music could never have the power to express the meaning of such sentences as â€Å"My flight to Los Angeles was delayed because of poor conditions on the runway.† This is a crippling observation in particular for anyone who thinks that my method of deciding whether music is a language is valid – without sematic content, two of the four properties of language Lewis defined go down the tubes. The absence of semantic content in music obviously bars us from saying that music has semantics; and, because music is free of semantic content, truth values are gone as well, as truth values are products of comparing the meanings of sentences with the world. The avid supporter of the music-as-language project has two avenues open to them at this point. They might object to Kivy’s view the music is free of semantic content; or, they might object to the view of language – specifically, the view of semantics – that Lewis gives us. I’ll start with the objection to Kivy. An obvious route someone objecting to Kivy’s determination that music is free of semantic content might take is saying that it does have semantic content – and this content is emotion. Music represents emotions the same way language represents the situations its sentences describe. Maybe the ability of music to describe things in the world is much more limited than language, but its ability to describe emotions is even better than natural languages’ ability. Thus music should be described as ‘a language of the emotions’. Kivy has a response to this claim, but I find it to be unsatisfying. He says this assertion gets you â€Å"from enhanced formalism in letter and spirit to a musical semantics in letter, not spirit, and enhanced formalism, still, in spirit.† He thinks that music can say nothing interesting or significant about emotion, and somehow this yields the result that music does not have emotional semantics. But the ability to say something interesting about what it denotes is not what defines the semantics of language – it is the ability to say what it says that defines language. In other words, it is the ability of sentences to denote at all which makes them linguistic. If music can do this, then it has semantic content. The problem is, we are wrong to say that music denotes emotion in the first place. I think Kivy is right when he says that emotion is a â€Å"heard property of the music† . Music does not ‘represent’ sadness; it just is sad, the same way that an apple just is red. And the reason we perceive these emotions in music is due to the fact that music can formally resemble how humans look and act when they feel certain emotions. Unfortunately, I can offer no positive reasons to accept this conception of emotion in music other than emotions are certainly a part of music in some capacity, and this formulation of their relation to music is the least problematic one I know of. And perhaps I can pose some problems with representative views of music that serve my intuitions well: for one, many people think that to be a real language, every sentence in that language that denotes a state in the world can be translated to a sentence in another language. How might one go about translating something music ‘says’ to English? Attempts usually produce a clumsy, single-word emotional descriptor, which varies from person to person. Another thing people think stems from a representative medium is the presence of truth values. We can say of a linguistic proposition that it represents our world, or it represents a situation not in our world; propositions of the first type are true, and propositions of the second type are false. But what would we say about music corresponds with a state in the world? It seems a very odd practice to listen to a phrase in Beethoven’s Fifth and say of it that it is ‘true’ or ‘false’. On the other hand, the supporter of a music-as-language view might challenge the definition that Lewis provides of semantics. He might use music to help define language, as Andrew Bowie does in his book Music, Philosophy, and Modernity. He says â€Å"if people understand a piece of articulation – which is apparent in terms of its effects in social contexts on behavior, reactions, feelings, and so on – it must mean something.† Bowie equates language with Lewis’ ‘language’, the social activity, and discards the properties of ‘a language’. Because music is a social activity by which people effect specific changes on others’ behavior or feelings, music has meaning, and therefore is a language. But Bowie betrays his own cause when he tells us what follows from this new definition of language in a quote by Bjà ¸rn Ramberg: â€Å"’We can, if we like, interpret all types of things as speaking’†. This definition of language allows us to call all types of things language that push against our intuitions on the subject. Arriving late to a meeting is now language, because others’ thoughts are influenced to think worse of me for being tardy. Playing a sport with other people is now language, because their behavior is altered when they respond to my sporting actions. Maybe you want to call these things language, but I suspect the majority of people do not. It is important that a practice we choose to call language should have aspects of ‘a language’ and is used by the practice of ‘language’. This successfully delineates language from non-language. The presence of truly semantic content is one of the principle factors in deciding whether something is a language. Even though music seems to have every property of the practice Lewis identifies as ‘language’, it cannot be a language. Edit: took out a sentence that doesnt make sense without the rest of the paper. 1 [SKS1]the recovery or regaining of something. the recuperation of the avant-garde for art [SKS2]a theory which assigns semantic contents to expressions of a language. Approaches to semantics may be divided according to whether they assign propositions as the meanings of sentences and, if they do, what view they take of the nature of these propositions.

Individuals with Disabilities Act Essays -- essays papers

Individuals with Disabilities Act Everyone says, "We need to help the schools more, it's all about the students." An act was created in 1975, to help those students who were disabled. This law has been criticized by many administrators and teachers. Over the years, because of these criticisms it has been revised and expanded throughout different schools. Higher education figures, such as principles, need to look closely at this act. They're have been cases in schools that have discriminated against this law. People who do or do not have a disability should know about this law and what it exactly means. This law has various amounts of positive key aspects concerning it. Some think its fair, and some do not. Education is suppose to help kids grow into adults with knowledge they have retained and make a good living for themselves. Disabled kids should have this advantage too. "The IDEA is a civil rights act, not an entitlement program." (Gordon and Keiser) This law is an expansion and revision of a law once called, "Education for All Handicapped Children Act." Now it is known as the law of â€Å"Individuals with Disabilities Act." It is known that "President Clinton signed the 1997 revised IDEA amendments into law to help make a fair and balanced compromise for everyone." (Marchand) Legislation was strict when leveling the terms concerning this law. The government has special fundings for special education in schools. It guarantee’s free education for children with disabilities ages 3-21 years of age. In time, this soon meant that, schools would have to have special transportation abilities for students. For students in wheel chairs, they created ramps so it was be easy to have access into the school. Elevators were rapidly bu... ...ing Access, Equilty, and Quality For Students With Disabilities In School-to-work systems: A Guide to Federal Law and Polices. Eric Digest. Retrievd from Eric database. ( 2001, August ). School Law News. Court: Emotionally Disabled Entitled to IDEA services, Issue 17, p.1-2. Retrived September 30, 2004, from Academic Search Premier. ( 2004, March ). Early Years. Education Journal, Issue 75, p.22. Retrieved September 30, 2004, from Academic Search Premier. Gordon, Michael., Keiser, Shelby. (Eds). (2000). Accommodations In Higher Education Under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). New York: GSI Publications. Vogel, S.A., Reder, Stephen. (Eds). (1998). Learning Disabilities, Literacy and Adult Education. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing. Wright, Peter, Wright, Pamela. (1997). Wrightslaw. Retrieved November 15, 2004 Http://wrightslaw.

Macroeconomic Performance of the Ten Countries Essay

What was Expected from the Governments and Central Banks of These New Entrants? On May 1, 2004, ten Central European and Mediterranean countries joined the EU and their names are as follows: Czech Republic, Estonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Slovenia, and Slovakia.   This raised the enlargement to 25 countries that comprise of 450 million people, which is more than the population of the U.S. and Japan combined. [1] This accession will compel the new member states governments to utilize the EU legislation without much exception and will enable them to enjoy all the advantages that go with it, and once they go through a certain period and show improvements, they will be included in Schengen area and the euro zone. In addition, from the year 2004 to 2006 they are entitled to receive a payment of 45 billion euros in a form of a community aid and 30.7 billion euros in a form of payment appropriations.   As a result, according to two treaties that were signed in Amsterdam and Nice that were the basis through which the enlargement was conducted, the intent of the whole arrangement was to make the enlarged Europe more democratic, transparent, and effective calling on all governments to work on these areas. The end result of the enlargement had been labeled as a historical precedence that will change the dimensions of the continent and it is believed to put the division of the past behind ushering in democracy, freedom, and stability to the whole region.   At the same time it is believed that it creates opportunities for all involved where the early 15 nations business share and economical activity had increased, while the new entrants have also reaped economic advantage that was not available for them before the assesstion. What had come into existence is a union of 450 million people and had already represented at the time the union was effected one-fourth of the world wealth, giving the region a new leading economic power.   In addition, the role the continent is playing in the international scene had gotten enhancement, especially in security and defense policy. [2] The new states and their governments that are joining the Union will have to adhere to the Copenhagen Criteria and it has three components.   The first component is any of the nations that are joining the union should reach a certain level of stability and should have establishments that oversee and guarantee democracy, the rule of law, human rights, and the observing of the rights of minorities.   Then the second one which is an economic criteria stipulates that the nations adhere to the principle of the market economy and have a mechanism that enables them to deal with competitive pressure and market forces that will be directed at them after joining the EU. What is called acquis communautaire adoption criterion anticipates that the candidates should put themselves in a position to shoulder the membership’s obligations, as well as a strict adherence to the principles of the political, economic, and monetary union.   Through all this process the Union is responsible for evaluating, recommending, and approving of the states’ performance and it will evaluate the capacity of the Union to absorb more members without affecting the normal functioning of the existing Union members. The process starts when European countries apply to join the Union and that will be evaluated based on how the applicant nations with the guidance of their respective governments meet the Copenhagen political and economic criteria, and the accession is granted only when the requirements are met.   The nations through their governments will have to agree to apply the EU legislation that is over 80,000 pages from day one, even if there are a few exceptions that will allow the new entrants a leeway as long as it is not going to intervene with the smooth operation of the activities of the other members.   When the EU is convinced that the applying nations meet all the requirements of the Copenhagen criteria the next phase will kick in, which is the signing of the accession treaty. [3] The ten Central European and Mediterranean states, through macroeconomic plans that were introduced and carried out by their respective governments had gone through this process before getting permission to join the Union.   And once they joined the Union there are more questions arising because it is difficult to say what currency they should be using and as long as they meet the Maastricht criteria they are expected to the join the euro zone by abandoning their own currency. Here the various central banks play a leading role because it is known that it will take them some time to meet the requirements and while working to meet the requirements they will have to focus on their structural and economic reforms so that they will manage to have a better convergence in both nominal and real terms.   Since the other requirement before joining the euro is entering the Exchange Rate Mechanism of the European Monetary System, the ERM II will require them to abandon their own monetary policy. It does not necessarily mean this route fits everyone since the rigorous stability requirement applied by the exchange rate could derail the existing stand of their current account, simply because when there is appreciation in their currency it will affect their competitiveness, because of the high price they will be forced to charge.   The other worry is joining the ERM II should not result in overvaluing their currency whereby they will be obligated to devalue their currency in the two years test period.   From what had been witnessed most of the nations had an open economy that was heavily reliant on trade with EU countries and if they can eliminate the transaction cost in any way, which would include currency exchange, they will embrace it. [4] The final outcome was from the ten countries that joined the Union Slovenia, Lithuania, and Estonia were able to enter the ERM II and were expected to join the euro zone on January 1st, 2007, simply because they had met most of the criteria. But the only nation that managed to join the euro was Slovenia showing that the others did not meet some of the requirements, they need more time to make the adjustments, and might be able to join the euro by the year 2008. The other three nations Latvia, Cyprus, and Malta had also joined ERM II and could join the euro in 2008.   The remaining members Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, and Poland are deemed to wait longer to better meet the criteria.   [5] The Macroeconomic Policy These Nations had been Following After Joining the Union. To address this question starting from the Central European nation that just joined the euro zone in January 1, 2007 might shed light on the areas that the nation did right while the other two nations Lithuania and Estonia will have to wait at least up to 2008 to be evaluated if they would meet the requirement of the ERM II.   The nation had $17,290 per capita income in 2005, it had a population of two million people, and it was among the most successful transition economies.   The nation’s GDP per capita in 2005 was 81% of the other EU members, which must have helped it to get a high score, since it is the only nation that has such a high percentage. According to the report the prosperity of Slovenia is due to its gradual and consensual approach to reform, which has made it different from the other nine countries.  Ã‚  Ã‚   It has worked hard to attain this position although lately its competitiveness is eroding.   Another area that had lagged was foreign direct investment (FDI) due to the slower pace and the general reluctance to interact with foreign sources resulting the FDI to be 1.2% of GDP between 1997-2005.   Even if it had reached once to 7% of GDP it had gone back to .02% of GDP in 2005 and this falling behind is curtailing the advancement the nation could have attained, yet it did not prevent it from joining the euro, simply because the possibility is within reach. [6] As far as economic growth is concerned the nation has averaged 3.9% it the mentioned period and had managed to fend off macroeconomic imbalances that were commonplace with the other transitional economies and its tight fiscal and monetary policy had resulted in allowing it to have a near balanced budget with a 1.7% budget and 1.1% current deficit, another good performance that was coupled with an enhanced foreign trade. The country also had managed to bring inflation under control and it had it at a single-digit since 1996.   Another advantage the nation had was it had a strong performance where the GDP growth was at 3.9% fueled by a rise in foreign demand.   In all this, inflation was under control at 2.5% and that was attained by allowing wage to lag behind productivity growth, by making up for oil price increase by introducing excise tax, and by attaining a stable exchange rate. [7] The next nation to look at is Lithuania which was among the three nation that were slated to join the eruo in 2007,   but has not made it and looking at its performance might shade light on how it fared.   The first glaring difference between the two countries is the per capita income where in Lithuania it was $7,210 in 2005 even if the population in Slovenia was only 1.4 million, whereas the population in Lithuania is 3.4 million. Other than that the GDP growth of 7.5% was much higher and it was the fastest growing economy in the region. It also had much more to export, which included refined oil, machinery and equipment, and textile.   It is not different than the other countries that are heavily dependant on the euro zone for their exports, the average being 60%.   The other advantage it had over Slovenia was it had enjoyed a peak GDP growth of 10% in 2003 since it was in a better position to create wage growth by bringing down unemployment from 17% down to 6% and in doing that it had got help from the EU fund that it was entitled for joining the Union in 2004. At the same time, it had a much better domestic demand that is enabling it to drive its economy.   Yet, there is a sign of heating of the economy as there is shortage of workers since they are migrating to the UK and Ireland.   After joining ERM II it had shown an impressive commitment to adopt the euro and was able to liberalize its pricing and most of its trades had been directed to the EU zone.  Ã‚   The other factors such as privatization had been taken care of to the point where all factors of production are in the private hands, and it had also been working in the area of FDI that is seeing a steep increase.    If there is another aspect that is holding it back it could the unparalleled poverty level in the nation and it is at 52% purchasing power parity compared to 81% enjoyed by Slovenia.   And one of the reasons that it did not qualify might be at least 16% of its population lives under the poverty line and poverty is widespread in the rural area where it is considered to be up to 57% of the poor are living.   That area might be the reason that contributed to its being held back for a while since all the indicators including health and education are going badly lacking in these regions. [6] Estonia that was in the list to join the euro in January 1, 2007 with the other two nations is a relatively smaller country with a population of 1.35 million and its per capita income is $9,100.   This nation has fewer natural resources and it depends on trade for the most part.   Its main specialty export is telecom.   Its GDP growth performance was not bad at 7.5%. The country had been a main gateways for trade between the Soviet Union and the West that is said to have given it some advantage and because of that the education level and the standard of living of the people was higher that other member countries. In 2005 its GDP growth had reached 9.8% resulting in the heating up of the economy as the unemployment rate had gone down, while at the same time workers are migrating to the other EU countries.   What is driving its economy is the domestic demand that is expanding due to income growth and credit expansion that is also taking export higher.   If there is any problem highlighted it is the overheating of the economy and the current account defect that is at 11% of GDP in 2005 and was at 13% in 2004, which would mean this could be one of the reasons why its plan to join the euro in 2007 had been postponed. [8] The other three nations slated for 2008 to join the euro are Latvia, Cyprus, and Malta.   Latvia has a per capita income of $6,750 and has 2.3 million people where one-third of them are living in the capital city.   The nation has few natural resources and is an importer for the most part and the import includes natural gas, oil, and electricity.   The source of GDP for 2005 was 23% industry, 73% service, and the remaining 4% was from agriculture. The country had some difficulty adjusting after it left the Soviet Union and the situation was turned around by the fiscal discipline the government introduced, where a cap was put to the subsidies enterprises were getting.  Ã‚   The government’s early liberalization effort had enabled the nation to join WTO in 1999.   Overall, the nation had converted itself into a market economy, which enabled it to join the EU in 2004.  Ã‚   Market and price liberalization, privatization, restriction on foreign transaction all are in the right perspective and the result had been positive where privatization is almost complete. Other areas overhauled were the legal system, institutions, and the social safety net.  Ã‚   The GDP growth had made it to 10.2% in 2005 and the unemployment rate was at 8.7% in the same year.   Some of the malice that is affecting the other nations such as low-income level, which was at 47% of the EU average had not spared this nation either.   Because of that labor migration had been escalating after joining the Union which is feared to create a problem in the long run while at the same time the population is aging.   Because of this there is a fear of overheating and the deficit has reached 12.4% while inflation is at 6%, which has contributed to the holding back of the nation from joining the euro and that might be possible in 2010. [6] Cyprus on the other hand has a highly developed infrastructure with a population of 784,000 and with a per capita of $7135.   The macroeconomic policy of the government had focused on meeting the requirement of joining the EU.   There was oil discovery in the sea south of Cyprus and negotiations had gone underway with the neighboring Egypt how to exploit the finding. The overall market structure is based on a free-market basis and is heavily dependant on the service sector, yet there is lack of investment from government and private sector, while at the same time the high cost of freight had been scaring business away, and all this had been worsened by the lack of skilled labor.   In spite of this handicap, the GDP growth rate had made it to 11.4 in 2004 and yet it is lagging behind in attracting FDI.   Even if there is a political problem between the north and south, this particular nation might be among the nations that would join the EU in 2008. [9] Malta is also another island with a population of 404,000, which had transformed itself into a freight transshipment and a financial center as well as a tourist destination.   In addition, it has some limestone and a better productive labor force than Cyprus where the economy is dependent on foreign trade, manufacturing, and tourism.   Its per capita income is much higher than most countries at $20,300 and the unemployment rate for 2006 was at 6.8%.   The island has liberalized its market and privatized some government-controlled firms and the possibility that it might join the euro zone is there. [9] The other nations Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland, are much bigger nations and there is Slovakia also that are slated to join the euro gradually after meeting the criteria, which might prove to be difficult to them because of their size.   If we take the case of the Czech Republic, it has a population of 10.2 million and a per capita income of $11,110 making it among the highest income earning countries.   After joining the EU in 2004 the process of transforming the economy from centrally planned to a market driven economy is almost complete.   There had been a considerable fiscal consolidation, and the inflation is low at 1.8%, while at the same time it had no problem with its balance of payments. Foreign direct investment is 50% of the GDP making it the only nation that enjoys such inflows of investment, yet, in spite of it, it had a high unemployment rate of more than 8% and is persisting, which might have been because of its high population that is not affected much by the migration of labor. The GDP growth for 2005 was 6%, attained mainly through export created through FDI in the automotive sector.   The fiscal deficit for 2005 was at 3% whereas the current account deficit fell to 2.3% for 2005.   Because of the high unemployment, which is the outcome of sluggish economic performance it might have to stay a bit longer before joining the euro, although the expectation is it will meet the requirement eventually. [10] More or less, the same is applicable to the other three countries Hungary, Poland, Slovakia whose population is 10 million, 38 million, 5.4 million respectively, making Poland the highest populated country among the EU-10 countries.   While Hungry had $10,050 per capita income, Poland had $7,110, and Slovakia had $8,130 in 2005.   Poland had to deal with structural reforms to consolidate public finance, tackle unemployment and poverty, work on making the nation attractive for business by introducing a more efficient government. The fact that up to seven million people live in poverty does not make it look as a good candidate for the euro yet and the unemployment rate is the highest at 16%.   However, the situation is a bit changing after joining the EU in 2004 and there was a growth of 5.3% in GDP in 2004, which created high consumption level, investment opportunity, and a better exporting level, and eventually it will make it a proper candidate to join the euro as it is working to meet that goal.   Its FDI is at 5% of GDP and that is low for such a large country although its inflation rate is low at 2.1% and its current account defect is also under control. [6] On the other hand, Hungary is in a much better position since it was able to attract FDI that is enabling it to build a robust private exporting sector.   If there is a problem, the budget deficit is at 8% due to higher public spending and tax reduction, which could affect the economy in the long run.   Inflation had slowed down to 3.5% for 2005 which was due to regulated prices and a decrease on indirect taxes. The unemployment rate stood at 7.2% in 2006.   Even if the government had introduced a fiscal consolidation program what might be needed to change the situation is a long term structural reform.   Hungary is moving steadily to join the euro gradually, and is better situated than the rest of the countries that are in line to join the euro in the coming years. [6] Slovakia is also in a similar situation with the others where it had a 6% GDP growth in 2005 and had unemployment rate of 16.2%.   In recent years, especially after joining the EU in 2004 it had undertaken major steps to decentralize its economy.   The government had introduced reform in many areas including welfare, pension, health care, labor market, and public finance.   Its GDP for 2005 grew by around 6% and inflation was at 2.7%. The fiscal deficit was at 3.3% while the current account deficit had been 7.8% of GDP for 2005 and it had FDI rate 2.7% of GDP.   Overall, it is working toward meeting the EU’s criteria to join the euro although it is difficult to say when it will meet all the requirements. [6] The conclusion is, there are requirements these nations will have to meet and the major ones are to tackle high level of inflation, a budget deficit below 3% of GDP, the public debt has to be at a manageable level, and maintaining a long term low interest rate in parallel to other central banks. If these are in place side by the side with the Maastricht and the Copenhagen Treaty criteria the time it will take them to join the euro will be shorter. Otherwise, their participation could affect the smooth operation of the whole Union, as well as it will put them at a disadvantage offsetting their whole fiscal and monetary policy. [11] REFERENCE The Union Welcomes Ten New Countries [Online]. Available:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.delnam.cec.eu.int/OurNewsletter/2004/ECNewsMay04.pdf.   March 14, 2007. European Parliament Fact Sheet. [Online]. Available:   Ã‚  Ã‚   www.europal.europa.eu/facts/2_3_0_en.htm.   March 14, 2007. The Challenge of European Economy in 2004. [Online]. Available:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   www.ecb.int/press/key/date/2004/html/sp040129.en.html.   March 14, 2007. Euro in a Wider Circle. [Online]. Available:   Ã‚  Ã‚   www.ece.int/press/key/date/2004/html/sp041119.en.html.   March 14, 2007. Redefining Europe. [Online]. Available:   Ã‚   www.inter-dicpilanry.net/AUD/AUD2/s10.htm.   March 14, 2007. World Bank. [Online]. Available:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   www.worldbank.com (countries).   March 14, 2007. ECB Panel Intervention at the Euro Conference. [Online]. Available:   Ã‚  Ã‚   www.ecb.int/press/date/2007/html/sp07115_1.en.html.   March 14, 2007. Commission Assessment of Estonia Convergence. [Online]. Available:   http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/about/activities/sgp/country/commass/ee/ass_ee20032004.   Ã‚  Ã‚   March 14, 2007. CIA The World Fact Book. [Online]. Available:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   https://cia.gov (countries).   March 14, 2007. Macroeconomic. [Online]. Available:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.cerge-ei.cz/pdf/books/pdf_0304/III.pdf.   March 14, 2007. The European Union and Its Expanding Economy. [Online]. Available:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://jpn.cec.eu.int.home/speech_en_speech%2009/2005.php.   March 14, 2007

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